Aim: Pleistocene (2.58 Ma–11.7 ka) climatic fluctuations have shaped intraspecific genetic patterns worldwide; however, their impact on species in many regions re-mains unknown. In order to determine the impact of Pleistocene climatic fluctuations on the tropical rain forests of western Ecuador, we explored the evolutionary history of the endemic palm Phytelephas aequatorialis. Location: Western Ecuador, north-western South America. Taxon: Phytelephas aequatorialis (Arecaceae). Methods: One hundred and seventy-six nuclear genes were sequenced in 91 individuals for phylogenomic and population structure analyses. The time of divergence between identified genetic lineages was estimated using a coalescent phylogenomic analysis. Palaeoecological niche modelling analyses were performed to determine areas of historical climatic suitability since the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; 22 ka) that potentially acted as forest refugia during the Pleistocene. A Wilcoxon test and Pearson correlations were used to explore how current levels of genetic diversity, in terms of expected heterozygosity (Hs), have been shaped by several palaeoclimatic and geographic factors. Results: Phylogenomic and population structure analyses revealed two main genetic lineages with a north–south distribution, which diverged 1.14 Ma during thePleistocene. Two potential Pleistocene refugia were identified, one along the Pacific coast of Ecuador and one in the Andean foothills of south-western Ecuador. The location of these refugia agrees with the spatial location of the two genetic lineages. Within the Andean foothills, Hs was lower for the southern lineage than for the northern lineage. Hs significantly increased with decreasing latitude across the species as a whole.Main conclusions: Pleistocene climatic fluctuations promoted intraspecific diver-gence in P. aequatorialis within the rain forests of western Ecuador. The Andean foot-hills of south-western Ecuador could be an important area for rain forest evolution

PREMISE: Third-generation sequencing methods generate significantly longer reads than those produced using alternative sequencing methods. This provides increased possibilities for the study of biodiversity, phylogeography, and population genetics. We developed a protocol for in-solution enrichment hybridization capture of long DNA fragments applicable to complete plastid genomes. METHODS AND RESULTS: The protocol uses cost-effective in-house probes developed via long-range PCR and was used in six non-model monocot species (Poaceae: African rice, pearl millet, fonio; and three palm species). DNA was extracted from fresh and silica gel–dried leaves. Our protocol successfully captured long-read plastome fragments (3151 bp median on average), with an enrichment rate ranging from 15% to 98%. DNA extracted from silica gel–dried leaves led to low-quality plastome assemblies when compared to DNA extracted from fresh tissue. CONCLUSIONS: Our protocol could also be generalized to capture long sequences from specific nuclear fragments.

Palmito (Bactris gasipaes var. gasipaes Kunth), the only native domesticated palm in the Neotropics, is used for its fruit, wood, and also for heart of palm. Ecuador is the largest exporter of palmito, with approximately 16,000 ha cultivated in 2009, representing 57% of the world’s market (Montúfar and Rosas 2013). During two visits in February and May 2014 to palmito farms in the province of Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas in western Ecuador, scattered plants with bud rot symptoms were observed. The affected plants showed chlorotic spear leaves, with necrosis inside the base of the stem on the meristematic tissue and tested positive for Phytophthora spp. using ImmunoStrip tests (Agdia Inc. Elkhart, IN, USA). Infected meristem tissue was baited on surface sterilized papayas and kept between 20 to 25°C for 7 days (Torres et al. 2010).

When asked to think about heat production in the natural world, our thoughts first turn to mammals, birds, and other warm- blooded animals. As mammals ourselves, we are often thankful for our ability to produce heat internally to raise body temperature above ambient temperature, through a process called endothermy. This phenomenon has fascinated naturalists and biologists for centuries (Heinrich 1999) and still has the capacity to surprise modern scientists, with new discoveries concerning the occurrence and evolution of endothermy in the animal world. Last year, for example, saw the discovery of the first entirely warmblooded fish (Wegner et al. 2015). The endothermy of this fish is a remarkable adaptation for swimming in cold waters. Endothermy also occurs in some plants. Since the first description of heat production in arum flowers by Lamarck (1778), many other flowering and seed bearing species have been shown to produce heat. The reasons for the evolution and ecological importance of endothermy in temperate and tropical plants are still a matter of debate, and any new field observations of plant endothermy constitute potentially interesting pieces in this eco-evolutionary jigsaw.

Research and conservation of palm species relies on training new generations of palm biologists, especially in tropical countries. Such trainings pave the way to answer new questions related to palm biology, sustainable management, the cultural and economic links between humans and palms, and build conservation strategies through education and civil empowerment.

Phytelephas aequatorialis is the commercially exploited ivory palm in western Ecuador, where less than 25% of the natural forest remains. To determine the conservation status of this palm, we visited 15 populations, growing under different degrees of human disturbance in both the lowlands and the lower Andean slopes. We collected leaf material for genetic analyses, which we hope will provide valuable information that can help the conservation and management of this important species. For a first view, populations growing outside forests in pastures appeared to be threatened because they did not reproduce naturally. The species per se, however, is not threatened because of its wide distribution and large populations. Conserving its populations could secure the species’ genetic and phenotypic diversity, which, in turn, is the raw material for its domestication.

In the Tropical Andes millions of people depend upon the use of wild and domesticated biodiversity for their livelihoods, but the complex interactions between the ecological and social components of the region’s ecosystems remain poorly under‐ stood. Better knowledge of these interactions can help provide solutions to reduce poverty in this region. The joint international laboratory on Biodiversity in Natural and Cultivated phytosystems of the Tropical Andes (BIO_INCA) aims to fill crucial gaps in knowledge by advancing research at the interface between biology, ecology, agronomy, social and human science, and economics, which will not only help address the challenge of ecologically sustainable agriculture, but also contribute to United Nations sustainable development goals on Zero hunger and Life on land.

Mauritia flexuosa dominated palm swamps are an important forest resource covering over 30,000 km across the Amazon basin. In Ecuadorean Amazonia, Mauritia flexuosa, a dioecious and arborescent palm species, forms small and isolated populations or large and dense stands on poorly drained soils. How these populations are genetically interconnected and how genetic diversity varies between cohorts of different ages remains little studied although they are important for conservation of these ecosystems. The genetic structure of Mauritia flexuosa was studied in five natural stands using eight microsatellite loci and two cohorts (seedling and adults). In addition, age structure and sex ratio within the stands were assessed using transects. The age structure of the studied Mauritia flexuosa stands is represented by a high number of seedlings (mean = 1,153.6/ha) and adults (mean = 563.2/ha), with a sex ratio favoring female individuals (1.42:1). These stands are also characterized by a fine-scale genetic structure, high observed heterozygosity (mean: H =0.52; H =0.52), high inbreeding (mean: F = 0.26; F = 0.26), low number of migrants (N =0.29), strong genetic differentiation (mean: pairwise R / D-values = 0.08/ 0.74; mean R /D-values = 0.17/ 0.76), and an average effective population size (N ) of 191.42 individuals. No intergenerational genetic variation was detected between seedlings and adults. We suggest that the high genetic diversity and inbreeding as well as the strong differentiation among stands of these populations could be explained, at least partially, by a low genetic connectivity among populations. Destructive harvesting of its fruits and defaunation will be major threats to Mauritia flexuosa populations in the future. Abstract in Spanish is available with online material.

Ecological interactions play a fundamental role in determining the genetic structure of plant species in time and space. The demography of the Andean Puya hamata has been linked to fire regimes and hummingbird behaviour, which might modify the plant’s population genetic structure. Naturally, poor dispersal results in patches of genetically related plants, a pattern intensified further by burning which promotes seedling germination around parent plants. Later, when these plants flower, large patches are attractive to territorial hummingbirds which prevent visits by traplining hummingbird species, carrying pollen from likely unrelated plants. To explore this hypothesis, a genetic study of P. hamata using microsatellite markers was conducted with (i) isolated and grouped adults in two size categories of patches, and (ii) seeds collected from the same patches and isolated individuals. Isolated individual plants presented a higher observed heterozygosity with close to zero inbreeding. Adult plants from large patches showed a lower observed heterozygosity and higher inbreeding than plants from other spatial contexts. Seed genetic structure displayed a gradient of diversity: lower at patch centres but higher at patch edges, in small patches, and for isolated infructescences. The spatial context of these plants, especially the contrast between large patch centres and other situations, determines the genetic diversity of their seeds via hummingbird foraging behaviour. Territorial hummingbirds restrict gene flow in and out of large patches, but traplining hummingbirds maintain genetic diversity among isolated plants, small patches, and plants at the edges of large patches. Our study illustrates the need to consider interactions between land use, plants, and their pollinators when considering genetic diversity at the landscape scale

Background: As concerns about agrodiversity loss and its impact on food security increase, interest in seed-saving practices and motivations has risen, especially in regions characterized by ancestral farming. Agroecology practitioners in the northern Andes of Ecuador (n = 65) participated in this study to describe (1) the dynamics of intergenerational agrodiversity, (2) perceptions of relevance of the crops they grow, (3) criteria for characterizing the differences between conventional and non-conventional seeds, and (4) their seed-saving practices. Methods: This exploratory study incorporated a community-based participatory research approach using mixed methods. We conducted (1) a timeline mapping for exploring the dynamics of intergenerational agrodiversity and (2) structured interviews to explore the perception of relevance of crops grown to identify criteria for characterizing conventional and non-conventional seeds and for identifying seed-saving practices. We computed ranks and frequencies from free listing data derived from the interviews to detect the most salient patterns for crop diversity and seed-saving practices. A principal component analysis was performed to illustrate crops distribution within the study area. Results and discussion: Based on the timeline-mapping tool, we found that participants perceive an intergenerational loss of agrodiversity. Data derived from free listing determined that salient crops differ in each location of the study area, mostly due to geographic (altitude, climate), market factors, and crop management limitations. Responses from open-ended interview questions revealed that farmers discriminate conventional from non-conventional seeds using yield, adaptation to local conditions, pest tolerance, taste, and crop management as criteria.

Post-dispersal seed removal by ground-foraging frugivores promotes secondary dispersal of large seeds, reducing seed predation and increasing recruitment and regeneration. We studied how habitat disturbance influences seed removal patterns in the large-seeded palm Phytelephas aequatorialis within three habitats forming a continuum of disturbance (agroforestry system, disturbed forest, and less-disturbed forest) using seed removal experiments and camera trapping. We tested whether seed removal rates, and both richness and composition of seed remover communities varied between the habitats. On average, 15 seeds were removed under each tree in the agroforestry system over seven days, which was significantly lower compared to the disturbed forest (18) and the less-disturbed forest (19). Eight mammal species were identified removing seeds in the three habitats. On average, one mammal species removed seeds at each station in the agroforestry system, which was significantly lower than the two species observed in the two forests. The composition of seed remover communities was significantly different between the three habitats. Our results suggest that the loss of forest cover in the agroforestry system has reduced the richness of seed removers, which subsequently caused decreased removal rates. Nevertheless, this habitat could still maintain effective seed dispersal events because spiny rats were important seed removers. Our camera trap data should be taken as preliminary because we could only identify less than half of the animals responsible for seed removal. This study highlights the importance of medium- and large-sized rodents for the removal and effective dispersal of large seeds in disturbed tropical habitats.